Potential effects of sound on marine invertebrates

Marine invertebrates involve a wide diversity of taxa, such as crustaceans, annelids, cephalopods, and gastropods. Given this diversity, marine invertebrates live in a variety of habitats including in the water column; others live close to, on, or within the seafloor. These habitats are acoustically complex, with multiple routes for sound and vibrations to travel within seafloor and the water column as well as the interface between them.

Marine invertebrates encounter vibrations in many ways. One way includes sound propagation in water. Water-borne acoustic energy has a sound pressure component and a particle motion component ^[1]Popper, A. N., Hice-Dunton, L., Jenkins, E., Higgs, D. M., Krebs, J., Mooney, A., Rice, A., Roberts, L., Thomsen, F., Vigness-Raposa, K., Zeddies, D., & Williams, K. A. (2022). Offshore wind energy development: Research priorities for sound and vibration effects on fishes and aquatic invertebrates. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 151(1), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0009237^[2]Popper, A. N., Hice-Dunton, L., Jenkins, E., Higgs, D. M., Krebs, J., Mooney, A., Rice, A., Roberts, L., Thomsen, F., Vigness-Raposa, K., Zeddies, D., & Williams, K. A. (2022). Offshore wind energy development: Research priorities for sound and vibration effects on fishes and aquatic invertebrates. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 151(1), 205–215. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0009237^[3]Kinsler, Lawrence E., ed. Fundamentals of Acoustics. 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 2000.. For more information please visit What are the different components of sound used for hearing? and What is sound?

Marine invertebrates can also encounter substrate vibrations. Substrate vibration consists of pressure and particle motion within the substrate or at the substrate/water interface ^[4]Hawkins, Anthony D., Richard A. Hazelwood, Arthur N. Popper, and Patrick C. Macey. “Substrate Vibrations and Their Potential Effects upon Fishes and Invertebrates.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 149, no. 4 (April 2021): 2782–90. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0004773.. The level of substrate vibration generated depends on many factors, including the source of vibration, substrate type, sediment layers and other characteristics, water depth, bathymetry, distance from the source, and type of wave propagation. Substrate vibration can propagate as a compressional (pressure) wave, shear wave, or interface wave (for more information, please see How does sound propagate through sediment?). Slow moving seismic interface waves (or ground roll) are of particular interest, as they can propagate long distances along the surface of the substrate. They also produce vibrations in the water column just above the ocean floor.

Marine invertebrates that produce and detect sound use a diverse array of mechanisms (for more information, please see How do marine invertebrates produce sounds? and How do marine invertebrates detect sounds?). Data suggest that invertebrates detect both water-borne and substrate-borne particle motion^[5]Aimon, Cassandre, Stephen D. Simpson, Richard A. Hazelwood, Rick Bruintjes, and Mauricio A. Urbina. “Anthropogenic Underwater Vibrations Are Sensed and Stressful for the Shore Crab Carcinus Maenas.” Environmental Pollution 285 (September 2021): 117148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117148.^[6] Jones, Ian T., Jenni A. Stanley, and T. Aran Mooney. “Impulsive Pile Driving Noise Elicits Alarm Responses in Squid (Doryteuthis Pealeii).” Marine Pollution Bulletin 150 (January 2020): 110792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110792.^[7] Roberts, L, S Cheesman, T Breithaupt, and M Elliott. “Sensitivity of the Mussel Mytilus Edulis to Substrate‑borne Vibration in Relation to Anthropogenically Generated Noise.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 538 (October 28, 2015): 185–95. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11468.^[8] Roberts, Louise, and Michael Elliott. “Good or Bad Vibrations? Impacts of Anthropogenic Vibration on the Marine Epibenthos.” Science of The Total Environment 595 (October 2017): 255–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.117.^[9]Roberts, Louise, and Mark E. Laidre. “Finding a Home in the Noise: Cross-Modal Impact of Anthropogenic Vibration on Animal Search Behaviour.” Biology Open 8, no. 7 (July 15, 2019): bio041988. https://doi.org/10.1242/bio.041988.^[10]Samson, Julia E., T. Aran Mooney, Sander W.S. Gussekloo, and Roger T. Hanlon. “Graded Behavioral Responses and Habituation to Sound in the Common Cuttlefish, Sepia Officinalis.” Journal of Experimental Biology, January 1, 2014, jeb.113365. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.113365.. Water-borne particle motion is detected as movement in the surrounding aquatic medium, whereas substrate-borne vibration is detected as particle motion below the seafloor or at the substrate/water interface. Although it is known that terrestrial animals use interface waves for communication, it is not yet known if this occurs in marine invertebrates^[11]Hill, Peggy S. M. Vibrational Communication in Animals. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2008..

Anthropogenic activities produce both water-borne and substrate-born vibrations that may affect marine invertebrates. High amplitude, impulsive, anthropogenic sound sources (such as pile driving, seismic airguns, and marine vibroseis devices) are of particular concern given their high energy outputs and the ability for produced sounds to propagate over large distances. Research on the potential effects of underwater sound on marine invertebrates is limited, however. It can be difficult to predict the sound fields to which marine invertebrates are exposed, especially when considering particle motion and/or the shallow water environments in which many species live.

Additionally, much of the work that has been conducted with marine invertebrates has been in a laboratory setting. Although tank-based studies afford a high level of experimental control, it can be difficult to translate results from the lab to that of the natural environment^[12]Carroll, A.G., R. Przeslawski, A. Duncan, M. Gunning, and B. Bruce. “A Critical Review of the Potential Impacts of Marine Seismic Surveys on Fish & Invertebrates.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 114, no. 1 (January 2017): 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.038.^[13]Popper, Arthur N., and Anthony D. Hawkins. “The Importance of Particle Motion to Fishes and Invertebrates.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 143, no. 1 (January 2018): 470–88. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.5021594.^[14]Popper, Arthur N., Lyndie Hice-Dunton, Edward Jenkins, Dennis M. Higgs, Justin Krebs, Aran Mooney, Aaron Rice, et al. “Offshore Wind Energy Development: Research Priorities for Sound and Vibration Effects on Fishes and Aquatic Invertebrates.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 151, no. 1 (January 2022): 205–15. https://doi.org/10.1121/10.0009237.. To avoid potential misinterpretation of tank-based results, the sounds to which the animals are exposed should represent, as much as possible, the pressure, particle motion, and/or substrate vibration the animals may experience in the wild. Animals also behave differently in the natural environment, the major difference being the space provided to escape a perceived threat or alarm; these behavioral differences should be considered when analyzing results. Lastly, the terminology, measurements, and methods used in tank-based studies requires better standardization; without such normalization, comparisons among studies can be challenging.

The potential effects of anthropogenic sound and/or substrate-borne vibration may include anatomical damage, physiological impacts, and behavioral impacts. To date, results are difficult to interpret due to the large number of species tested, inconsistencies in experimental methods used, and stimuli applied. As a result, some studies document no effects, while others have found a range of effects. It is important to recall, however, that the acoustical environment in which marine invertebrates live is complex, and animals may encounter and sense sounds and/or vibrations in different ways. Many research studies with marine invertebrates only document potential impacts associated with one type of vibration (e.g. sound pressure, particle motion, or substrate vibration). Ideally, in order to create a cohesive understanding of anthropogenic sound and marine invertebrates, studies should be designed to assess impacts from all three forms of vibration. A future priority should also be agreement on relevant stimuli for testing impacts.

DOSITS Links

• Science > What is sound?
• Science > Sound Movement > How does sound propagate through sediment?
• Animals > Sound Production > How do marine invertebrates produce sounds?
• Animals > Sound Detection > How do marine invertebrates detect sounds?
• Animals > Advanced > What components of sound are used for hearing?
• Animals > Advanced > Blast Injury, Barotrauma, and Acoustic Trauma
• Animals > Anthropogenic sound sources > Airguns
• Animals > Anthropogenic sound sources > Pile driving

Additional Resources

• Ballard, Megan S., and K. M. Lee. “The acoustics of marine sediments.” Acoustics Today 13.3 (2017): 11-18.
• Raboin, Maggie. “Inaudible Noise Pollution of the Invertebrate World.” Acoustics Today 17, no. 2 (2021): 32. https://doi.org/10.1121/AT.2021.17.2.32.
• Ruiz-Ruiz, Paula A., Iván A. Hinojosa, Angel Urzua, and Mauricio A. Urbina. “Anthropogenic Noise Disrupts Mating Behavior and Metabolic Rate in a Marine Invertebrate,” 040006. Den Haag, The Netherlands, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1121/2.0001302.
• Spiga, Ilaria, Gary S. Caldwell, and Rick Bruintjes. “Influence of Pile Driving on the Clearance Rate of the Blue Mussel, Mytilus Edulis (L.),” 040005. Dublin, Ireland, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1121/2.0000277.

Additional References

• Hawkins, Anthony D., Ann E. Pembroke, and Arthur N. Popper. “Information Gaps in Understanding the Effects of Noise on Fishes and Invertebrates.” Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 25, no. 1 (March 2015): 39–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-014-9369-3.
• Hawkins, Anthony D., and Arthur N. Popper. “A Sound Approach to Assessing the Impact of Underwater Noise on Marine Fishes and Invertebrates.” Edited by Howard Browman. ICES Journal of Marine Science 74, no. 3 (March 1, 2017): 635–51. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsw205.
• Kunc, Hansjoerg P., Gillian N. Lyons, Julia D. Sigwart, Kirsty E. McLaughlin, and Jonathan D. R. Houghton. “Anthropogenic Noise Affects Behavior across Sensory Modalities.” The American Naturalist 184, no. 4 (October 2014): E93–100. https://doi.org/10.1086/677545.
• Roberts, Louise, and Thomas Breithaupt. “Sensitivity of Crustaceans to Substrate-Borne Vibration.” In The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II, edited by Arthur N. Popper and Anthony Hawkins, 875:925–31. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. New York, NY: Springer New York, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2981-8_114.
• Solan, Martin, Chris Hauton, Jasmin A. Godbold, Christina L. Wood, Timothy G. Leighton, and Paul White. “Anthropogenic Sources of Underwater Sound Can Modify How Sediment-Dwelling Invertebrates Mediate Ecosystem Properties.” Scientific Reports 6, no. 1 (April 2016): 20540. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20540.